“Education is not whitefella. It belongs to the world.”
– David Price
The issue of language in the education of Indigenous students is one with broad and far-reaching consequences, affecting a great proportion of students and families, and contributing to the yawning gaps in educational standards between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. Aboriginal educational issues are not often simple and isolated, but rather are complicated and interconnected, with issues such as language being linked to socio-economic, health, social and communication issues. These interconnected issues have a major impact on students’ attitudes to schooling, bullying, ‘drop-out’ rates, and literacy and numeracy skills. This essay will explore the issue of language in Aboriginal education, in particular where language and communication is affected by health and culture and how this impacts on the education of Indigenous students, as well as strategies to improve language related issues that may already be in place, and those which can be used in one’s own classroom.
The issue of language in terms of Indigenous education is a complex and multi-faceted one, and defining it requires an understanding of the vast range of influencing issues, as well as an understanding of the many issues which are influenced in turn by it; language is only a small part of a larger whole in terms of Indigenous education. One of the aspects of the issue of language discussed in this essay is the teaching of Standard Australian English and the discussions around bilingual education in remote communities. While the National statement of principles and standards for more culturally inclusive schooling in the 21st Century states that “schooling acknowledges the capacity of all young Indigenous people to learn by… expecting all Indigenous children to be fluent in Standard Australian English and at the same time being inclusive of the student’s home language” (MCEECDYA, 2000), the issue of language and its use in the education of Indigenous children is still debated. Language is an issue inextricably linked with communication, especially verbal, and as such is also influenced heavily by culture and health. This essay will analyse the health issues that often cause problems with language and communication that significantly affect the educational experience and outcomes for Indigenous students, as well as the cultural circumstances around the debate about bilingual education.
Speaking of mainstream education, Susan Butler, editor of the Macquarie Dictionary states that the use of Standard Australian English “comes back to the long-established and very worthy desire that teachers have to protect their students against solecism so that they pass the exam they want to pass, they get the job they want to have, they achieve the lifetime of honour and distinction which they want to achieve” (Australian Style, 2010). While these goals are universal, they are not reached by all students; with only 36% of Indigenous young people continuing their education to year 12, and less than 2% going on to undertake tertiary studies, far below the average for non-Indigenous students (Ashman & Elkins, 2009). The Cape York Institute’s discussion paper on Literacy Improvement (2007) states that “early access to a Standard Australian English environment will help to prepare Indigenous children to develop their literacy skills” – but in many communities (especially those in rural or remote areas), Indigenous children may not receive these kinds of foundations, arriving at school already disadvantaged in terms of literacy and language. Warlpiri woman Bess Nungarrayi Price, mother and advocate of Indigenous issues voices the views of many Indigenous parents when she discussing whether teaching predominately in English is more or less beneficial than teaching in local languages with English as a second language: “Why wouldn’t I want my children, my families, to be taught English first, because that’s a way in to the future… in order to get to know about the whole world you need that understanding of English to get you there, and that’s not happening with our children… The Northern Territory Government has made it their policy to teach English for four hours.. and I supported that and I agreed that that’s how schools should deliver English. You find that people around my age we all had that same kind of education and it was taught properly and that’s not what’s happening now and that’s why education is failing for our children. We want teachers to come out to our communities and teach English and not worry about trying to be blackfellas, not try to pretend to be someone that they aren’t, and that’s what’s happening, and to teach our children as if they are teaching white students.”(ABC Radio National, 2011) Her husband David Price, who has taught in both bilingual and English programmes, states that he has “never seen a bilingual programme done properly” either because teachers are poorly trained, because of the large number of languages still existing (“17”), or because no written resources in those languages exist, and suggests that if bilingual programmes are not totally successful, they should not be attempted at all.
Ashman and Elkins cite another cause of low literacy achievement as being “a middle-ear infection such as otitis media or glue ear” (Ashman & Elkins, 2009, p114). Estimates of the prevalence of ear diseases amongst Indigenous children vary, Armstrong, Laing and Wilkes suggest the figure is 50% in some communities (Armstrong, Laing, Wilkes, 2008), while Reid and Trompf suggest the figure to be as high as 80% (much higher than for non-Indigenous children), often resulting in hearing loss “significant enough to interfere with education, particularly in the delayed acquisition of language skills”(Reid & Trompf, 1991, p58). Middle ear perforation and discharge can occur very early in life (generally in the first year of life) and once older, discharge becomes chronic although intermittent. While perforations do heal, the hearing loss caused by them (and chronic ear discharge) occurs at a “critical time for learning and the development of language skills” (Reid & Trompf, 1991, p329). Unfortunately, there is little evidence that any medical treatment can alter the outcome of chronic ear discharge, and so the priority must now be to not only reduce the prevalence of the condition, but to put measures in place to help children suffering from these diseases as well as their families, to aid not only their language development at home, but their transition into a school environment, and to avoid issues such as bullying, literacy and attitudes towards schooling.
With the growing awareness of literacy and language development issues among Indigenous children, there are a growing number of prevention strategies appearing. Some, like the bilingual education David Price referred to as unreliable, are hotly debated by teachers, and others are already in place in many schools. Reid & Trompf mention the development of improved hearing aid devices for use in schools, and improved teaching for teachers on the education of hearing impaired Indigenous children (1991, p329), and Burrow and Galloway give a detailed list of strategies to work with Indigenous children with hearing impairment, including the development and improvement of literacy and language skills. They give suggestions for classroom management such as seating arrangement, organisation of classrooms to minimise noise, installation of amplification devices, the negotiation with students of set “listening behaviours”, pre-teaching new material (key words etc), the establishment of predictable routines and of peer support or “buddy” systems. They also suggest that teachers take the time to identify the gaps in a child’s language development and help the student develop the understanding of language that is critical to success in written literacy, focusing on phonological awareness, text skills, linking sounds and written language and developing “world” knowledge (of concepts, context and content of language) (Burrow Galloway, Weisnoffer, 2009). Comics such as Streetwize’s 2006 “Cooee! Can ya hear me?” and factsheets such as the 2008 “Hearing in the classroom” produced by Australian Hearing also provide both teachers and students with strategies to maximise learning in the classroom and generate discussion about students’ needs and how these are met. The Cape York Institute suggests a number of strategies to improve language ant literacy skills in Indigenous schools including the linking of welfare payments to school attendance, improving the quality of teaching in remote communities (it’s estimated a third of teachers in Cape York have no previous experience – and even those with experience can be improved with professional development strategies such as the What Works. The Works Program [www.whatworks.edu.au]), and the improvement of literacy outcomes, advocating the use of Macquarie University’s remedial literacy program MULTILIT (Making Up Lost Time in Literacy), as well as early childhood interventions and ongoing interventions at a community and school level. Other programs and resources such as the National Accelerated Literacy Program (2007, formerly Scaffolding Literacy), Aboriginal voices: Activities and resources for English (produced by the Department of Education, Training and Employment, 2000) and Building bridges: Literacy development in young Indigenous Children ( produced by Fleer and Williams-Kennedy, 2002) have been produced to help teachers, students and families understand and work to solve literacy, language and communication issues in Indigenous education. MULTILIT, for example, has been accepted by the Cape York Institute as well as the Australian Government, which agreed to fund its introduction in the four schools located in the Welfare Reform trial communities, beginning in 2008, and has achieved much success with its students and is used internationally for students in special education, mainstream education and Indigenous education as well as at a community level.
While these are all steps in the right direction, it is important to remember that there are many more Indigenous who are not given access to this kind of program and still struggle linguistically every day, whether through lack of exposure to Standard Australian English, starting and falling behind at school, because of an ear disease or hearing difficulties stunting language development, or simply through lack of attendance, and it is these students that we as educators, parents or policy makers need to reach in order to make a true difference to the wide gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. It is important that while considering the complicated and inter-connected issues of Indigenous education, that we remember that “while Indigenous students may present as a homogenous group they represent a wide variety of languages, beliefs and practices” (Dempsey & Arthur-Kelly, 2007). As earlier noted by Burrow and Galloway, teachers need to take the time to identify gaps in their students’ development and subsequently identify the right course of action for that individual. Perhaps a structured program such as MULTILIT is necessary, or perhaps it is a cooperative relationship and communication with a student’s parents (who must always be recognised as the first educators of a child). Whatever the solution may be, it must be recognised to exist. There are many resources available to teachers, school staff, parents, and students themselves, that if taken advantage of, could truly change the educational path of an Aboriginal child forever. Perhaps David Price puts it most succinctly when he says that “we want Aboriginal children to talk to the world, not just to whitefellas”.
Coooee! Can ya hear me?, (2006), Sydney, Streetwize Communications,
Bibliography & Reference List:
Aboriginal Literacy Strategy, Department of Education and Training,[retrieved 28.4.11] http://www.det.wa.edu.au/aboriginaleducation/detcms/navigation/teaching-and-learning/literacy-and-numeracy/aboriginal-literacy-strategy/?oid=MultiPartArticle-id-7169080
Armstrong, J.E., Laing, D.G., Wilkes, F.J., (2008), Olfactory function in Australian Aboriginal children and chronic otitis media, Chemical Senses, vol 33, issue 6, pp503-507
Arthur-Kelly, M., Dempsey, I., (2007), Maximising Learning Outcomes in Diverse Classrooms, Sydney, Thompson
Ashman, A., Elkins, J., (2009), Education for Inclusion and Diversity, Sydney, Pearson Education Australia
Background Briefing Podcast: Welcome to my world, (2011), ABC Radio National, [retrieved 1.5.11] http://www.abc.net.au/rn/backgroundbriefing/stories/2011/3201609.htm
Burrow, S., Galloway, A., Weissofner. N., (2009) Review of educational and other approaches to hearing loss among Indigenous people, [retrieved20.4.11] http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/other-health-conditions/ear/reviews/our-review-education
Coates, H., Vijayasekaran, S., Mackendrick, A., Leidwinger, L., et al, (2008), Aboriginal Ear Health Manual, Perth, Alcon Laboratories Australia
Cooee! Can ya hear me?, (2006), Sydney, Streetwize Communications
Hearing in the Classroom, (2008), Sydney, Australian Hearing
Literacy Discussion Paper, (2007),Cape York Institute, [retrieved 21.4.11] http://www.cyi.org.au/WEBSITE%20uploads/Education%20Attachments/Literacy%20Discussion%20Paper%20Final.pdf
Marsh, C., (2010), Becoming a Teacher, Sydney, Pearson Education Australia
MULTILIT, [retrieved 21.4.11] http://www.multilit.com/
National statement of principles and standards for more culturally inclusive schooling in the 21st Century, (2000), Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (MCEECDYA), [retrieved 22.4.11] http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/principl_file.pdf
Reid, J., Trompf, P., (1991), The Health of Aboriginal Australia, Sydney, Harcourt Brace & Co
Standard Australian English, (2010),Australian Style: a national bulletin on issues in Australian style and English in Australia, Vol 17, issue 1, [retrieved 23.4.11] http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/news/australian_style.htm
What Works. The Works Program, (2010),Commonwealth Government, [retrieved 20.4.11] http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=homePage
“Education is not whitefella. It belongs to the world.”
– David Price
The issue of language in the education of Indigenous students is one with broad and far-reaching consequences, affecting a great proportion of students and families, and contributing to the yawning gaps in educational standards between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. Aboriginal educational issues are not often simple and isolated, but rather are complicated and interconnected, with issues such as language being linked to socio-economic, health, social and communication issues. These interconnected issues have a major impact on students’ attitudes to schooling, bullying, ‘drop-out’ rates, and literacy and numeracy skills. This essay will explore the issue of language in Aboriginal education, in particular where language and communication is affected by health and culture and how this impacts on the education of Indigenous students, as well as strategies to improve language related issues that may already be in place, and those which can be used in one’s own classroom.
The issue of language in terms of Indigenous education is a complex and multi-faceted one, and defining it requires an understanding of the vast range of influencing issues, as well as an understanding of the many issues which are influenced in turn by it; language is only a small part of a larger whole in terms of Indigenous education. One of the aspects of the issue of language discussed in this essay is the teaching of Standard Australian English and the discussions around bilingual education in remote communities. While the National statement of principles and standards for more culturally inclusive schooling in the 21st Century states that “schooling acknowledges the capacity of all young Indigenous people to learn by… expecting all Indigenous children to be fluent in Standard Australian English and at the same time being inclusive of the student’s home language” (MCEECDYA, 2000), the issue of language and its use in the education of Indigenous children is still debated. Language is an issue inextricably linked with communication, especially verbal, and as such is also influenced heavily by culture and health. This essay will analyse the health issues that often cause problems with language and communication that significantly affect the educational experience and outcomes for Indigenous students, as well as the cultural circumstances around the debate about bilingual education.
Speaking of mainstream education, Susan Butler, editor of the Macquarie Dictionary states that the use of Standard Australian English “comes back to the long-established and very worthy desire that teachers have to protect their students against solecism so that they pass the exam they want to pass, they get the job they want to have, they achieve the lifetime of honour and distinction which they want to achieve” (Australian Style, 2010). While these goals are universal, they are not reached by all students; with only 36% of Indigenous young people continuing their education to year 12, and less than 2% going on to undertake tertiary studies, far below the average for non-Indigenous students (Ashman & Elkins, 2009). The Cape York Institute’s discussion paper on Literacy Improvement (2007) states that “early access to a Standard Australian English environment will help to prepare Indigenous children to develop their literacy skills” – but in many communities (especially those in rural or remote areas), Indigenous children may not receive these kinds of foundations, arriving at school already disadvantaged in terms of literacy and language. Warlpiri woman Bess Nungarrayi Price, mother and advocate of Indigenous issues voices the views of many Indigenous parents when she discussing whether teaching predominately in English is more or less beneficial than teaching in local languages with English as a second language: “Why wouldn’t I want my children, my families, to be taught English first, because that’s a way in to the future… in order to get to know about the whole world you need that understanding of English to get you there, and that’s not happening with our children… The Northern Territory Government has made it their policy to teach English for four hours.. and I supported that and I agreed that that’s how schools should deliver English. You find that people around my age we all had that same kind of education and it was taught properly and that’s not what’s happening now and that’s why education is failing for our children. We want teachers to come out to our communities and teach English and not worry about trying to be blackfellas, not try to pretend to be someone that they aren’t, and that’s what’s happening, and to teach our children as if they are teaching white students.”(ABC Radio National, 2011) Her husband David Price, who has taught in both bilingual and English programmes, states that he has “never seen a bilingual programme done properly” either because teachers are poorly trained, because of the large number of languages still existing (“17”), or because no written resources in those languages exist, and suggests that if bilingual programmes are not totally successful, they should not be attempted at all.
Ashman and Elkins cite another cause of low literacy achievement as being “a middle-ear infection such as otitis media or glue ear” (Ashman & Elkins, 2009, p114). Estimates of the prevalence of ear diseases amongst Indigenous children vary, Armstrong, Laing and Wilkes suggest the figure is 50% in some communities (Armstrong, Laing, Wilkes, 2008), while Reid and Trompf suggest the figure to be as high as 80% (much higher than for non-Indigenous children), often resulting in hearing loss “significant enough to interfere with education, particularly in the delayed acquisition of language skills”(Reid & Trompf, 1991, p58). Middle ear perforation and discharge can occur very early in life (generally in the first year of life) and once older, discharge becomes chronic although intermittent. While perforations do heal, the hearing loss caused by them (and chronic ear discharge) occurs at a “critical time for learning and the development of language skills” (Reid & Trompf, 1991, p329). Unfortunately, there is little evidence that any medical treatment can alter the outcome of chronic ear discharge, and so the priority must now be to not only reduce the prevalence of the condition, but to put measures in place to help children suffering from these diseases as well as their families, to aid not only their language development at home, but their transition into a school environment, and to avoid issues such as bullying, literacy and attitudes towards schooling.
With the growing awareness of literacy and language development issues among Indigenous children, there are a growing number of prevention strategies appearing. Some, like the bilingual education David Price referred to as unreliable, are hotly debated by teachers, and others are already in place in many schools. Reid & Trompf mention the development of improved hearing aid devices for use in schools, and improved teaching for teachers on the education of hearing impaired Indigenous children (1991, p329), and Burrow and Galloway give a detailed list of strategies to work with Indigenous children with hearing impairment, including the development and improvement of literacy and language skills. They give suggestions for classroom management such as seating arrangement, organisation of classrooms to minimise noise, installation of amplification devices, the negotiation with students of set “listening behaviours”, pre-teaching new material (key words etc), the establishment of predictable routines and of peer support or “buddy” systems. They also suggest that teachers take the time to identify the gaps in a child’s language development and help the student develop the understanding of language that is critical to success in written literacy, focusing on phonological awareness, text skills, linking sounds and written language and developing “world” knowledge (of concepts, context and content of language) (Burrow Galloway, Weisnoffer, 2009). Comics such as Streetwize’s 2006 “Cooee! Can ya hear me?” and factsheets such as the 2008 “Hearing in the classroom” produced by Australian Hearing also provide both teachers and students with strategies to maximise learning in the classroom and generate discussion about students’ needs and how these are met. The Cape York Institute suggests a number of strategies to improve language ant literacy skills in Indigenous schools including the linking of welfare payments to school attendance, improving the quality of teaching in remote communities (it’s estimated a third of teachers in Cape York have no previous experience – and even those with experience can be improved with professional development strategies such as the What Works. The Works Program [www.whatworks.edu.au]), and the improvement of literacy outcomes, advocating the use of Macquarie University’s remedial literacy program MULTILIT (Making Up Lost Time in Literacy), as well as early childhood interventions and ongoing interventions at a community and school level. Other programs and resources such as the National Accelerated Literacy Program (2007, formerly Scaffolding Literacy), Aboriginal voices: Activities and resources for English (produced by the Department of Education, Training and Employment, 2000) and Building bridges: Literacy development in young Indigenous Children ( produced by Fleer and Williams-Kennedy, 2002) have been produced to help teachers, students and families understand and work to solve literacy, language and communication issues in Indigenous education. MULTILIT, for example, has been accepted by the Cape York Institute as well as the Australian Government, which agreed to fund its introduction in the four schools located in the Welfare Reform trial communities, beginning in 2008, and has achieved much success with its students and is used internationally for students in special education, mainstream education and Indigenous education as well as at a community level.
While these are all steps in the right direction, it is important to remember that there are many more Indigenous who are not given access to this kind of program and still struggle linguistically every day, whether through lack of exposure to Standard Australian English, starting and falling behind at school, because of an ear disease or hearing difficulties stunting language development, or simply through lack of attendance, and it is these students that we as educators, parents or policy makers need to reach in order to make a true difference to the wide gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. It is important that while considering the complicated and inter-connected issues of Indigenous education, that we remember that “while Indigenous students may present as a homogenous group they represent a wide variety of languages, beliefs and practices” (Dempsey & Arthur-Kelly, 2007). As earlier noted by Burrow and Galloway, teachers need to take the time to identify gaps in their students’ development and subsequently identify the right course of action for that individual. Perhaps a structured program such as MULTILIT is necessary, or perhaps it is a cooperative relationship and communication with a student’s parents (who must always be recognised as the first educators of a child). Whatever the solution may be, it must be recognised to exist. There are many resources available to teachers, school staff, parents, and students themselves, that if taken advantage of, could truly change the educational path of an Aboriginal child forever. Perhaps David Price puts it most succinctly when he says that “we want Aboriginal children to talk to the world, not just to whitefellas”.
Coooee! Can ya hear me?, (2006), Sydney, Streetwize Communications,
Bibliography & Reference List:
Aboriginal Literacy Strategy, Department of Education and Training,[retrieved 28.4.11] http://www.det.wa.edu.au/aboriginaleducation/detcms/navigation/teaching-and-learning/literacy-and-numeracy/aboriginal-literacy-strategy/?oid=MultiPartArticle-id-7169080
Armstrong, J.E., Laing, D.G., Wilkes, F.J., (2008), Olfactory function in Australian Aboriginal children and chronic otitis media, Chemical Senses, vol 33, issue 6, pp503-507
Arthur-Kelly, M., Dempsey, I., (2007), Maximising Learning Outcomes in Diverse Classrooms, Sydney, Thompson
Ashman, A., Elkins, J., (2009), Education for Inclusion and Diversity, Sydney, Pearson Education Australia
Background Briefing Podcast: Welcome to my world, (2011), ABC Radio National, [retrieved 1.5.11] http://www.abc.net.au/rn/backgroundbriefing/stories/2011/3201609.htm
Burrow, S., Galloway, A., Weissofner. N., (2009) Review of educational and other approaches to hearing loss among Indigenous people, [retrieved20.4.11] http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/other-health-conditions/ear/reviews/our-review-education
Coates, H., Vijayasekaran, S., Mackendrick, A., Leidwinger, L., et al, (2008), Aboriginal Ear Health Manual, Perth, Alcon Laboratories Australia
Cooee! Can ya hear me?, (2006), Sydney, Streetwize Communications
Hearing in the Classroom, (2008), Sydney, Australian Hearing
Literacy Discussion Paper, (2007),Cape York Institute, [retrieved 21.4.11] http://www.cyi.org.au/WEBSITE%20uploads/Education%20Attachments/Literacy%20Discussion%20Paper%20Final.pdf
Marsh, C., (2010), Becoming a Teacher, Sydney, Pearson Education Australia
MULTILIT, [retrieved 21.4.11] http://www.multilit.com/
National statement of principles and standards for more culturally inclusive schooling in the 21st Century, (2000), Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (MCEECDYA), [retrieved 22.4.11] http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/principl_file.pdf
Reid, J., Trompf, P., (1991), The Health of Aboriginal Australia, Sydney, Harcourt Brace & Co
Standard Australian English, (2010),Australian Style: a national bulletin on issues in Australian style and English in Australia, Vol 17, issue 1, [retrieved 23.4.11] http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/news/australian_style.htm
What Works. The Works Program, (2010),Commonwealth Government, [retrieved 20.4.11] http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=homePage
